Legends of the Falls (Part 2): The Place of the Rainbow

Legends of the Victoria Falls (Part 2): The Place of the Rainbow

By Peter Roberts

The second part in a short series looking at the cultural and natural history of the Victoria Falls, a natural wonder of the world and UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The first article looked at the cultural traditions recorded by Livingstone on his visits to the Falls in 1855 and 1860 (available here). Now we look at how, fifty years later, the Victoria Falls were promoted to and perceived by early tourists, and how Livingstone himself now became part of the local legend of the Falls.

Part One available here: 

Legends of the Victoria Falls (Part 1): Spirits of the Falls.

Victoria falls viewed from western end, Cataract Island in foreground

 (Photo Credit: Peter Roberts)

Guiding Spirits

In 1902 Mr Francis (Frank) William Sykes was appointed the first Conservator of the Falls, responsible for the Falls Park established on both sides of the river around the immediate area of the Falls for a distance of five miles. Sykes appears to have spent some time trying to understand the local traditions and cultural beliefs surrounding the Falls.

The travel writer and correspondent for the London Morning Post, Mr Edward Frederick Knight, visited the Falls in early 1903, publishing a detailed account of his travels later the same year. Sykes guided Knight around the Falls, spending the first day exploring the north bank and the second day the south side.

Viewing the Falls from the Eastern Cataract Knight recorded his first impressions.

“It is too sublime a spectacle to have anything of horror in it. The sense of danger is strangely absent as one looks from the edge of the abyss at the majestic scene. It is as if one were out of this universe and in some higher one where the forces of Nature are on a gigantic scale, irresistible yet without menace; where there is no death or pain for living things, so that they are able to gaze with a rapture of admiration unmixed with fear at the stupendous and beautiful manifestations of power that cannot hurt them. At the Victoria Falls the traveller feels that he might well be looking on some landscape of Paradise.” (Knight, 1903, p.344)

The next day they explored the Falls from the south bank, and into the 'rainforest' (so named by the German visitor, E Mohr in 1870) opposite the main falls.

At the western end of the Falls Knight recorded a tradition of tying the long grass into a knot as a 'petition to the spirits':

“We followed the canon cliff round its westernmost curve, and I noticed that the tufts of grass growing at the very brink of the abyss had been tied at the top into knots by the natives, so that they had the appearance of so many ninepins. Each of these knotted tufts was a petition to the spirits of the Falls, for the Barotse feel the awful influence of the cataract, and in recognition of and in supplication to the mystic power of the water they fashion these living prayers.” (Knight, 1903, p.349)

Sykes' knowledge of local beliefs perhaps influenced Knight in his descriptions, particularly in relation to the rainbows which follow the observer at close distance during certain conditions in the dense atmosphere of the rainforest, and which Knight likened to 'an attendant ghost,' an echo perhaps of the traditional cultural beliefs associating the rainbow with the guiding spirits of the ancestors and the resulting spiritual significance of the Falls (See: Legends of the Victoria Falls (Part 1): Spirits of the Falls).  

“Then we plunged into the Rain Forest itself, and here, though there were some open savannahs of grass and fern, the growth of trees and bush was generally so dense that we could only progress by following the many intersecting hippopotamus tracks, tunnels which these animals had forced through the vegetation, down which we had to crawl, wading through deep mud and rank sodden grass, and crossing many streams of running water made by the falling spray...

“It was a forest of eternal driving wind and rain; and yet, despite this, it was no dark, cheerless, stormy scene that surrounded us. We walked through an atmosphere that was bright and luminous and even dazzling to our eyes. For, from the cloudless blue above us, which we could not see, the fierce rays of the sun pierced the spray cloud, filling the air with a diffused watery ever-shifting light. It was as if the sunshine were pouring on us through a veil of thin white silk.

Viewed through the rainforest (Photo Credit: Peter Roberts)

"In this light the raindrops on all the leaves sparkled like jewels. As we walked on there was always on the right hand of each of us a bright rainbow following him wheresoever he went like an attendant ghost. When we were in the more open spaces these rainbows retreated to a long distance off and waxed larger, appearing to span leagues of country; but when the forest closed in on us they came nearer and were smaller, in the denser jungle narrowing to arcs of colour not a yard across and so close that it seemed as if one had but to stretch out one's hand to touch them...

“And now that we were in the midst of the forest we realised all the unsurpassed luxuriance of this tropical vegetation bathed in sunshine and everlasting rain; the vivid greenness of the great trees, whose branches were linked with the multitudinous tendrils of the lianes and convolvuli; the lushness of the grass and ferns; the wondrous beauty of the various delicate flowers with rainbow-tinted petals, frail-looking but unharmed by the endless storm, marvellous blossoms that one was loth to pick. We plucked a few, hoping to keep them as specimens, but found that they almost immediately faded and withered in one's hand like the flowers of the enchanted garden of the fairy tale. And this might, indeed, have been a garden of fairyland, so unreal and dreamlike it looked in that luminous atmosphere...

“And yet ever by our side, advancing when we advanced, stopping when we stopped, were the faithful little attendant rainbows, brightening and waning with the changing density of the water-wind that swirled around us...

“And so on we went, drenched, for no waterproofs will keep one dry here, now under the dripping trees, now over the soaked savannahs, and now clambering over the slippery rocks on the cliff edge, until we had traversed the whole length of the Rain Forest and had come to the most terrible spot of all. We were standing at the extremity of that great wedge-shaped promontory of rock called Danger Point...

“We might have been gazing at a primordial chaos from which some day, after the passing of aeons, a world would be created. On this wild cape the air was no longer luminous, as in the forest; the sun’s rays did not pierce the dense vapours; the faithful little rainbows were unable to follow us here, and had left us.” (Knight, 1903, p.353-356)

The Place Where the Rain is Born

Fifty years after Livingstone's first visit to the Falls, Sykes authored the first ‘official’ tourism guide on the Falls, published during late August 1905. Sykes introduced his guide with the arrival of Dr Livingstone at the Falls in 1855, and records several local names and their meanings.

“The Native (Sekololo [Makalolo]) name for the Falls is Mosi-oa-Tunya, meaning ‘the smoke which sounds.’ It is a most appropriate one, as, viewed from any of the surrounding hills, this rising columns of spray, more particularly on a dull day, bear an extraordinary resemblance to the smoke of a distant veldt fire... The native in their songs say ‘how should anyone lose his way with such a land-mark to guide him?’” (Sykes, 1905)

Cataract Island is given its now commonly used English name, with Boruka as “the native name, signifying ‘divider of the waters.’”

On Livingstone Island Sykes wrote:

“Situated on the edge of the chasm almost in the centre of the Falls is the Island named after David Livingstone. ‘Kempongo’ was the old native name, which means ‘Goat Island.’ He himself named it Garden Island. It is a curious coincidence that it should bear a similar name to that other island which occupies almost an identical position at Niagara.” (Sykes, 1905)

Of the Rainforest, first named by the German traveller Edward Mohr who visited in 1870, Sykes notes:

“The name is well chosen, for here it is always dripping. The natives themselves refer to it as 'the place where the rain is born.'” (Sykes, 1905)

Cataract Island (Photo Credit: Peter Roberts)

At the end of the guide Sykes listed the regulations which visitors were expected to follow for the protection of the Falls environments, detailing the prohibiting of:

“- Shooting of any and every description within a radius of five miles [8 km] of the Falls on either bank.

- Netting and dynamiting in the river.

- The cutting of initials on or other defacement of the boles of trees.

- Plucking of flowers and ferns, uprooting ferns, orchids or other plants.

- Setting fire to the grass in the park.

- Trespassing of animals.

- Washing of clothes in the river above the Falls.

- Picnic parties are requested to remove all traces of their presence, such as tins, bottles, paper, etc, before leaving.

“The importance of the above will be obvious to all visitors who are lovers of nature, and their loyal observance is confidently relied upon.” (Sykes, 1905)

The regulations protecting the environment of the Falls not only protected the Falls and its immediate surrounds from the actions of indiscriminate visitors, but also limited access to, and the use of, the river and Falls for local Leya people, including access to sacred shrines and sites around the Falls - the prohibition of the washing of clothes in the river apparently directed specifically at the cleansing rituals carried out in the natural pools on the lip of the Falls. 

A New Shrine

A few months previously, in late 1902, Sykes had visited Garden Island with a local elder, Namakabwa, who showed him the tree upon which Livingstone had carved his initials, and which were said to still be faintly visible. Sykes later recorded its rediscovery:

“The Name Tree upon which he cut his initials still remains. Its identity was determined two years ago by the writer... An old white-haired native, by name Namakabwa, who spent most of his time down the gorge catching fish, on being questioned said he well remembered Livingstone, whose native name was ‘Monari,’ coming to the Falls, and described how he (Namakabwa) a day or two after Livingstone’s departure, made his way over to the island and found that a small plot had been cleared of bushes, also that he had made some cutting on a tree. When asked ‘which tree?’ he immediately went to the Name Tree, and put his finger on what had evidently been a cut. The authenticity of the above then is based on the evidence of ‘the oldest inhabitant,’ and may be accepted as genuine. The bark of the tree is so rough and the marks so nearly obliterated that one would have had some doubts on the subject, were the source of information less worthy of belief.

“It is to be recorded with regret that a certain class of tourists, to whom nothing is sacred, had commenced to strip and carry away pieces of the bark from this tree, and so came the necessity for a notice-board and tree-guard, in themselves a witness against the relic hunting vandal who lightly destroys what can never be replaced. Even Livingstone, the discoverer of the Falls, excuses himself for ‘this piece of vanity.’ Would that others were only as sensitive on this point as the great explorer, and delay carving their meaningless initials on the trunks of trees until they can boast such a world-wide fame as was his to excuse the act!” (Sykes, 1905)

The Livingstone Name Tree (Image from early postcar)

The railway line from the south to the Victoria Falls was completed in April 1904, and soon after, in June, the Victoria Falls Hotel opened its doors to its first guests. Construction of the Victoria Falls Bridge started later the same year, with the official opening held in September 1905.

Tours to Livingstone Island, and a visit to the 'Livingstone Name Tree,' were a key part of a visit to the Falls for early visitors. In January 1906, however, it was reported that there were fears tree was dying.

"The Livingstone correspondent of the Bulawayo Chronicle states that the tree upon which Dr Livingstone carved his initials at the Victoria Falls, is dying, and it is proposed to cut down the trunk and send it to London to be preserved with other relics. It is further proposed to perpetuate the memory of the great explorer by erecting a monument on the spot where the tree now stands.” (News from Barotsiland, 1906)

When the now famous bronze statue of David Livingstone was unveiled overlooking the western view of the Falls in August 1934, news reports recorded Livingstone’s initials were apparently still faintly visible on the tree he had originally carved them into in 1855, although by now serious doubts were being expressed as to the authenticity of the marks and even the identification of the tree itself.

References

Knight, E. F. (1903) South Africa after the War, A Narrative of Recent Travel. Longmans, Green and Co, London.

Sykes, F. W. (1905) Official Guide to the Victoria Falls. Argus Co., Bulawayo.

News from Barotsiland (1906) No.27, January 1906. p.8.

 - - -

Cataract Island Under Threat of Tourism Development

The sacred island sanctuary and protected wildlife refuge of Cataract Island is threatened by the recent launch of tourism tours and activities to the island, endangering not only its fragile ecology but also the wider status of the Falls as a World Heritage Site.

Read more: Fears Grow Over Falls World Heritage Status

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Peter Roberts is an ecologist, conservationist and freelance researcher and writer with a special focus on the Victoria Falls region. He is author of several books on the history of the Falls, including 'Footsteps Through Time - a history of Travel and Tourism to the Victoria Falls' [First published in July 2017, revised third edition April 2021].

Traditionalists cleanse Vic Falls

 Leonard Ncube, Victoria Falls Reporter

The elders from Victoria Falls and surrounding areas finally conducted a cleansing ceremony on Saturday.

The community under Chief Mvutu covering Monde, Chisuma, Chidobe, Sizinda, Kachechete, Jengwe and Victoria Falls town is convinced that some of the calamities happening in their communities are a result of the anger of the “gods” hence conducting of rituals was now necessary.

Only a few selected elders from the Muzamba family representing the Tokaleya clan went to the shrine for the rituals.

The rest of the villagers patiently waited at one of the Muzamba’s homesteads for two things – good news that the cleansing ceremony had gone well and the start of merry making characterised by drinking traditional beer and eating meat.

The traditionalists believe cleansing the area and reviving such events will atone for the sins of the community and prevent famines, diseases, increased frequency of natural disasters including drowning in Zambezi River and attack by wild animals which they say are a result of defilement of sacred places.

A group of elders from the Muzamba family who are descendants of the Tokaleya clan, the original inhabitants of the area, conducted the ceremony at the Makonga shrine that had been abandoned for decades in a bush near Phakama Village between Chidobe and Chisuma.

The family’s spirit medium Gogo Margaret Muzamba and Mr Jafuta Muzamba led the rituals that involved singing, dancing and incantations directed at the clan’s ancestors to forgive the community.

They poured traditional beer on the ground and into a hole under a tree believed to be a haven for a snake that used to emerge during rituals.

Mr Muzamba said they used to conduct rituals such as rain making ceremonies at the shrine.

He said sacred places such as the Big Tree near the Victoria Falls Rainforest, Gorges Lodge and Katombora in Zambezi National Park where some human bones are said to be scattered on the ground, will also be visited.

Some of the places have been occupied by open air churches or fenced off by tour operating companies.

“This is where our ancestors used to conduct rainmaking ceremonies every September and perform other rituals to prevent dangers. There was a snake at this shrine and some drums that could be heard from inside the tree trunk during the ceremonies. We are trying to revive all these practices that had long been abandoned because of interference from other cultures,” said Mr Muzamba.

He said the ceremony will be made an annual event as part of the revival of cultural practices,

Mr Muzamba said a fence will be erected around the shrine to protect the place.

Some churches had reportedly started conducting services at the tree while villagers also go there to pick baobab fruits.

“The chief once approached us after some churches started conducting services here. This is part of what defiled all the sacred places as people disrespect custom,” said Mr Muzamba.

The Tokaleya clan is a group of Tonga people also found across the Zambezi River in Zambia under Chief Mukuni and in Zimbabwe are linked to Chief Dingani-Nelukoba of Mabale.

Gogo Muzamba, who took over from Gogo Chibumbuluke who was the family’s spirit medium, said while the shrine had been cleansed, it will take time for the calamites to end.

“All these calamities are a result of abandonment and disrespect of culture. When we were growing up, no one was allowed to play in the Zambezi River or cross without performing a ritual like throwing something valuable in water. All this stopped because we had abandoned our culture and the situation wwas worsned by the disrespect of some churches and strangers,” said Gogo Muzamba.

“Even if you go to church, it is important to respect your own culture and that of other people. It will take time for these calamities to end because the damage had already been done but we are happy to be able to appease the spirits to save our culture and society at large. We wish the young generation can be taught about this.”

The traditionalists implored authorities to consult traditional leaders before initiating any infrastructural projects to avoid tampering with sacred places.-@ncubeleon

Source: Traditionalists cleanse Vic Falls (13/10/20)

Call for cleansing the Zambezi to end disasters

 Leonard Ncube, Victoria Falls Reporter

TRADITIONALISTS in Chief Mvuthu’s area outside Victoria Falls have called for cleansing of the Falls and its environs saying calamities like drownings in Zambezi River and attacks by wildlife are a result of the defilement of sacred places.

Chief Mvuthu’s area covers communities around Mvuthu, Ndlovu, Chikandakubi, Kachechete, Jabula, Chisuma, Sizinda, Monde, Woodlands and Victoria Falls town.

Original inhabitants are the Tokaleya people, a group of the BaTonga people also found across the Zambezi River in Zambia under Chief Mukuni.

Traditionalists from the Tokaleya ethnic group said some gorges along the Zambezi River and some places in the community were sacred and not supposed to be visited by strangers.

These include a shrine in Phakama Village where spirit mediums used to conduct rituals under a baobab tree, which reportedly fell about two decades ago but is still alive and bearing fruits, something which the traditionalists said signifies the anger of the gods.

Tour operating companies and Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority have reportedly fenced off some of the sacred places blocking access by traditionalists.

Traditionalists have accused some churches and people originally not from Victoria Falls of defiling sacred places by holding unsanctioned activities thereby angering the spirits.

Some villagers have also been accused of disrespecting the local cultural practices like upholding Thursday as a sacred day of rest.

The traditionalists have called for cleansing of the area saying they were committed to rectifying the wrongs that have happened.

They have approached elders from the Tokaleya people and agreed to conduct a cleansing ceremony on October 8 at the “fallen” baobab tree shrine in Phakama Village.

Three preparatory meetings have been held so far and a committee made up of traditionalists and traditional leaders has been formed.

Speaking at one of the meetings attended by traditional leaders, councillors from the area, police and Zimparks rangers in Chisuma during the week, chairman of the committee Mr Joshua Magomba Chuma, who is one of the surviving Tokaleya elders said drowning incidents on Zambezi River were a result of anger of the gods.

Two men drowned in Victoria Falls a fortnight ago while another drowned in Msuna area downstream in Hwange.

In August last year at almost the same time with the recent incidents, two siblings from Chidobe also drowned while posing for photos on the rocks in Zambezi River.

“We grew up knowing that Zambezi River was sacred and no one was allowed to swim or even go there but now anyone can do anything there. We have to respect other people’s cultures. All these drowning incidents that have happened are a sign that the gods are angry. We have to cleanse the area to appease the gods,” he said.

Alderman Elias Muzamba, also from the Tokaleya tribe said swimming in Zambezi River was not allowed.

“People should stop bathing or washing with soap in the Zambezi River. Some have even washed dark pots in the river while some have disturbed some graves. Some have taken clay pots that were used by spirit mediums on the river and even sold them to tourists as artefacts. All this has angered the spirits,” he said.

Zambezi River is used for rafting, bungee jumping, fishing, boat cruise and several other water activities that are popular with tourists.

Headman Afozani Mpofu who was representing acting Chief Mvuthu, Mr Bishop Matata Sibanda, accused some churches of deliberately disrespecting traditional leaders as they had openly defied custom.

“We are aware of the churches and groups of people that now conduct activities at the baobab tree. They are defiling the place and this should stop. We are glad now that you as the original owners of the place have decided to lead us in this,” he said. — @ncubeleon

Source: Call for cleansing the Zambezi to end disasters (11/09/20)

'Mysterious lion is a spirit, leave it,' says a sangoma

THE International Traditional Healers' Association (ITA) representative in Zimbabwe David Muhabhinyane Ngwenya yesterday warned authorities and members of the public to leave the mysterious lion which has reportedly been spotted in some parts of Bulawayo, as long as it has not harmed anyone.

Ngwenya said the lion might be a spirit visiting King Mzilikazi and Lobengula's territory and hunting it down would end up causing problems for people.

Ngwenya, a traditional healer residing in Gwabalanda, Bulawayo, said it was worrying to think that a real lion which had been seen by people had still not been captured or spotted by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Authority (Zimparks) more than three weeks later.

The lion has been on the loose since the end of April and it is still not clear where it came from. The Chipangali Wildlife orphanage has dismissed suspicions that the cat could have escaped from them saying they have all their lions.

Ngwenya said a lion that has not been seen or killed anything for food cannot be a real lion.

"It has something to do with traditional culture. It is a mirage (lilinda leli). It is a lion for the kings showing that the ancestral spirits are visiting the land and they must not trouble it or bother looking for it, otherwise it will cause us some problems," said Ngwenya.

He said if it was a real lion, it would have caused a lot of damage by now.

"Look at the time it has taken for them to find it. It shows that it cannot be a real animal. They have taken about three weeks looking for it; they must forget about it," Ngwenya said.

Zimparks southern regional manager Arthur Musakwa said they were maintaining a presence on the ground through the leads they got, but had not yielded anything.

"A lone lion generally would not stay in a place for a long time. Lions stray, but do not travel alone. They seek companionship. We have also not received any reports where animals have been killed by the lion," Musakwa said.

The hunting team went to Burnside, Waterford, Douglasdale and Hope Fountain asking members of the community if they had spotted the lion. Source: 'Mysterious lion is a spirit, leave it,' says a sangoma (Bulawayo News24 - 15-05-14)

Zambia's Mukuni Royal Dynasty celebrates ancient journey of paramount king.

The sun rises on Gundu village, in Mukuni, south-east of Zambia's tourism capital, Livingstone.

Built on a sandy knoll with a population of 10,000 inhabitants, this village is home to the founder of the Royal Mukuni dynasty; Paramount Chief Mukuni Mulopwe, who settled here among the Leya people having travelled from the Congo in the 18th century.

Mukuni village lies just 7 kilometers from the majestic Victoria Falls, known by the indigenous Leya people as Nsyungu Namutitima or Mosi-oa-Tunya - the smoke that thunders.

Every year, members of the Mukuni Dynasty's 33 Mornarchs that stretch across Congo, Central Zambia, Northern Zimbabwe, Eastern Zambia, converge here for a ceremony to remember their past and celebrate their culture.

"Zambia, most of the tribes actually, have arrived in Zambia either from South Africa, or from.... largely from Congo in the last four hundred years, so they've held... they've now been running for something like two or three hundred years," said His Royal Highness, Senior Chief Munokalya Mukuni, a direct descendant of the Mukuni founder.

Known as the Bene Mukuni Ceremony, it also celebrate the converging in Livingstone of the Bene Mukuni Royal Houses and to commemorate the pre-colonial and historic Mukuni Mulopwe's journey.
Each Chief is a descendent from the family of the Paramount Chief Mukuni.

The ceremony is one of the most important for Mukuni followers. Dignitaries come from across Southern Africa.

It begins with the washing of the Chief's feet in the blood of a 'beast', symbolic of when the first chief chose oxen blood to wash mud off his feet.

His brother chose human blood. This was regarded as unwise and he disappeared on their journeys never to be seen again. The lighting of the fire symbolises the light of Mukuni's reign.

The ashes from the fire are then used to honour all the chiefs present, each represented by a young girl from their tribe.

Historically these ceremonies were very private affairs. According to Chief Mukuni it is necessary to make them more public otherwise their culture may not be sustained. It is to remind the youth of where they have come from.

Grand Chief of the Cree Indians, Matthew Caan Comb travelled from Canada to witness the Mukuni ceremony.

Known internationally for his work to protect the traditional way of life of his people, he said the Mukuni people, like his own, were struggling to protect valuable traditions and resources.

"Society are consumers. Hungry for the use of ores, material things. Very materialistic. They've lost their way. Where now they focused on development. Where man thinks now it's my creation. He walks on cement, he makes big buildings. Then he forgets the creator. He forgets to protect the land," he said.

"In the USA, I visited a lot of Red Indian tribes and so on and, very strange, although we are separated by oceans and so on, I found that in essentials we are completely the same people. It was so amazing for me," said chief Mukuni. The journey of Mulopwe Mukuni from the Congo was guided by his sister Kaseba who rode an elephant and was known as Kaseba-Mashila 'clearer of paths'.

Chief Mukuni owns a wildlife adventure business called Mukuni Big 5, that offers elephant rides, close up encounters with cheetahs and walks with Lions.

Source: Zambia's Mukuni Royal Dynasty celebrates ancient journey of paramount king. (19/09/13)